The Psychology of Procrastination: Self-regulatory Mechanisms and Manifestations in Gifted Learners
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63437/3083-6425-2026-1(100)-03Keywords:
procrastination, self-regulation, gifted students, perfectionism, emotional regulationAbstract
This article presents a comprehensive theoretical analys is of procrastination as a multidimensional psychological
phenomenon grounded in contemporary international research. Procrastination is conceptualized as a voluntary and irrational
delay of intended actions despite the awareness of potential negative consequences and is interpreted primarily as a failure of
self-regulation rather than merely insuffi cient time-management skills. The paper synthesizes empirical fi ndings on the
motivational, emotional, cognitive, and contextual mechanisms underlying procrastination, with particular attention to short
term mood repair, task aversiveness, temporal discounting, reward delay, and fl uctuations in perceived self-effi cacy.
Dispositional predictors, including neuroticism, conscientiousness, maladaptive perfectionism, and self-handicapping
tendencies, are systematically reviewed, and their complex and sometimes inconsistent associations with procrastinatory
behavior are discussed.
The distinction between maladaptive procrastination and strategic delay is clarifi ed through the criterion of irrationality
and the presence of adverse outcomes, while debates concerning the construct of active procrastination are critically addressed.
Special emphasis is placed on procrastination among gifted students. Despite their high intellectual abilities and learning
potential, gifted learners may exhibit specifi c forms of delay associated with elevated standards, fear of not meeting expectations,
anxiety, and the illusion of eff ortless performance. In such cases, procrastination may manifest as excessive preparation,
overanalysis, or postponement driven by the pursuit of ideal outcomes. However, empirical evidence indicates that
procrastination explains only a limited proportion of variance in academic achievement among gifted students, underscoring
the need for a diff erentiated interpretation of this phenomenon.
The article highlights the importance of integrating international empirical fi ndings to refi ne theoretical frameworks and
inform psychological and pedagogical prevention strategies aimed at strengthening realistic self-effi cacy, reducing task
aversiveness, structuring complex assignments, fostering adaptive perfectionism, and supporting emotional self-regulation in
educational contexts.
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References
Використані літературні джерела
1. Aldalham M. S. Academic procrastination among outstanding achievement and non-achieving female university students. Information Sciences Letters. 2023. Vol. 12, № 2. URL: https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/isl/vol12/iss2/21.
2. Alenezi S. A. Perfectionism and procrastination among gifted and normal students at the College of Basic Education in the State of Kuwait. Journal of Educational and Psychological Sciences. 2022. Vol. 6, № 43. P. 118–138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26389/AJSRP.L070222.
3. Ayadi N., Pireinaladin S., Shokri M., Dargahi S., Zarein F. Investigating the mediating role of
procrastination in the relationship between positive and negative perfectionism and mobile phone addiction in gifted students. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry. 2021. Vol. 16, № 1. P. 30–55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v16i1.5375.
4. Bagheri S., Farahani H., Watson P., Bezdan T., Rezaiean K. Unraveling symptom interplay: A network analysis of procrastination in gifted students. BMC Psychology. 2024. Vol. 12. Article 370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359.
5. Beck A. T., Beck R. W. Screening depressed patients in family practice: A rapid technique. Postgraduate Medicine. 1972. Vol. 52. P. 81–85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1972.11713319.
6. Chowdhury S. F., Pychyl T. A. A critique of the construct validity of active procrastination. Personality and Individual Diff erences. 2018. Vol. 120. P. 7–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.026.
7. Chu A. H. C., Choi J. N. Rethinking procrastination: Positive eff ects of “active” procrastination behavior on attitudes and performance. The Journal of Social Psychology. 2005. Vol. 145, № 3. P. 245–264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.145.3.245-264.
8. Closson L. M., Boutilier R. R. Perfectionism, academic engagement, and procrastination among undergraduates: The moderating role of honors student status. Learning and Individual Differences. 2017. Vol. 57. P. 157–162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.04.001.
9. Gayary M., Kalita S. Relationship between academic procrastination and academic achievement of postgraduate students. Journal of Education and Health Promotion. 2025. Vol. 14. Article 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_435_24.
10. Gustavson D. E., Miyake A., Hewitt J. K., Friedman N. P. Genetic relations among procrastination, impulsivity, and goal-management ability: Implications for the evolutionary origin of procrastination. Psychological Science. 2014. Vol. 25, № 6. P. 1178–1188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614526260.
11. Hidalgo-Fuentes S., Martínez-Álvarez I., Llamas-Salguero F., Pineda-Zelaya I. S., Merino-Soto C., Chans G. M. The role of Big Five traits and self-esteem on academic procrastination in Honduran and Spanish university students: A cross-cultural study. Heliyon. 2024. Vol. 10, № 16. Article e36172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36172.
12. Hu Y., Tang Y., Li W., Zheng D., Jin Y., Fan Q., Buitelaar J. K., Zhou Y., Chen Z. Shared neurogenetic architecture links adolescent neurodevelopmental deviations to adult psychopathological procrastination. Molecular Psychiatry. 2026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03423-0.
13. Jadidi F., Mohammadkhani S., Zahedi Tajrishi K. Perfectionism and academic procrastination. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2011. Vol. 30. P. 534–537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.104.
14. Kandemir M. Predictors of academic procrastination: Coping with stress, internet addiction, and academic motivation. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2014. Vol. 32, № 5. P. 930–938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.32.05.60.
15. Kooren N. S., Van Nooijen C., Paas F. The infl uence of active and passive procrastination on academic performance: A meta-analysis. Education Sciences. 2024. Vol. 14, № 3. Article 323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14030323.
16. Korkmaz O., Ilhan T., Bardakci S. An investigation of self-effi cacy, locus of control, and academic procrastination as predictors of academic achievement in students diagnosed as gifted and non-gifted. European Journal of Education Studies. 2018. Vol. 5, № 12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46827/ejes.v0i0.1678.
17. Kurtovic A., Vrdoljak G., Idzanovic A. Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-effi cacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology. 2019. Vol. 8, № 1. P. 1–26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993.
18. Meng X., Pan Y., Li C. Portraits of procrastinators: A meta-analysis of personality and procrastination. Personality and Individual Diff erences. 2024. Vol. 218. Article 112490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112490.
19. Mofi eld E., Parker Peters M. Understanding underachievement: Mindset, perfectionism, and achievement attitudes among gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. 2019. Vol. 42, № 2. P. 107–134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353219836737.
20. Nadarajan S., Hengudomsub P., Wacharasin C. The role of academic procrastination on internet addiction among Thai university students: A cross-sectional study. Belitung Nursing Journal. 2023. Vol. 9, № 4. P. 384–390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33546/bnj.2755.
21. Online Etymology Dictionary. 2024. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/.
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23. Rebetez M. M. L., Barsics C., Rochat L., D’Argembeau A., Van der Linden M. Procrastination, consideration of future consequences, and episodic future thinking. Consciousness and Cognition. 2016. Vol. 42. P. 286–292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.003.
24. Rice K. G., Richardson C. M. E., Clark D. Perfectionism, procrastination, and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012. Vol. 59, № 2. P. 288–302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026643.
25. Rist F., Engberding M., Hoecker A., Wolf-Lettmann J., Fischbach E.-M. Diagnostic criteria to diff erentiate
pathological procrastinators from common delayers: A re-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology. 2023. Vol. 14. Article 1147401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1147401.
26. Roberts B. W., Chernyshenko O. S., Stark S., Goldberg L. R. The structure of conscientiousness: An empirical investigation based on seven major personality questionnaires. Personnel Psychology. 2005. Vol. 58. P. 103–139. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00301.x.
27. Shaw A., Choi J. Big Five personality traits predicting active procrastination at work: When self- and supervisor ratings tell diff erent stories. Journal of Research in Personality. 2022. Vol. 99. Article 104261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104261.
28. Steel P. The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin. 2007. Vol. 133, № 1. P. 65–94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.
29. Strunk K. K., Steele M. R. Relative contributions of self-effi cacy, self-regulation, and self-handicapping in predicting student procrastination. Psychological Reports. 2011. Vol. 109, № 3. P. 983–989. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2466/07.09.20.PR0.109.6.983-989.
30. Svartdal F., Nemtcan E. Past negative consequences of unnecessary delay as a marker of procrastination. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022. Vol. 13. Article 787337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787337.
31. Valente S., Dominguez-Lara S., Lourenço A. Planning time management in school activities and relation to procrastination: A study for educational sustainability. Sustainability. 2024. Vol. 16, № 16. Article 6883. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166883.
32. Vikram S. M., Singh R., Pandey A. Self-handicapping, procrastination and mindfulness among college students. Indian Journal of Applied School Psychology. 2025. Vol. 6, № 1. P. 267–275.
33. Vural L., Gündüz G. F. The relationship between academic procrastination behaviors and cognitive awareness levels of prospective teachers. Elementary Education Online. 2019. Vol. 18, № 1. P. 307–330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2019.527226.
34. Wang J., Wang P., Yang X., Zhang G., Wang X., Zhao F., Zhao M., Lei L. Fear of missing out and procrastination as mediators between sensation seeking and adolescent smartphone addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2019. Vol. 17, № 4. P. 1049–1062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00106-0.
35. Zentall T. R. Basic behavioral processes involved in procrastination. Frontiers in Psychology. 2021. Vol. 12. Article 769928. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769928.
References
1. Aldalham, M. S. (2023). Academic procrastination among outstanding achievement and non-achieving female university students. Information Sciences Letters, 12(2). Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.aaru.edu.jo/isl/vol12/iss2/21.
2. Alenezi, S. A. (2022). Perfectionism and procrastination among gifted and normal students at the College of Basic Education in the State of Kuwait. Journal of Educational and Psychological Sciences – Journal of Educational and Psychological Sciences, 6(43), 118-138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26389/AJSRP.L070222.
3. Ayadi, N., Pireinaladin, S., Shokri, M., Dargahi, S., & Zarein, F. (2021). Investigating the mediating role of procrastination in the relationship between positive and negative perfectionism and mobile phone addiction in gifted students. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry – Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 16(1), 30-55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v16i1.5375.
4. Bagheri, S., Farahani, H., Watson, P., Bezdan, T., & Rezaiean, K. (2024). Unraveling symptom interplay: A network analysis of procrastination in gifted students. BMC Psychology – BMC Psychology, 12, Article 370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01868-6.
5. Beck, A. T., & Beck, R. W. (1972). Screening depressed patients in family practice: A rapid technique. Postgraduate Medicine – Postgraduate Medicine, 52, 81-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1972.11713319.
6. Chowdhury, S. F., & Pychyl, T. A. (2018). A critique of the construct validity of active procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences – Personality and Individual Differences, 120, 7-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.026.
7. Chu, A. H. C., & Choi, J. N. (2005). Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of “active” procrastination behavior on attitudes and performance. The Journal of Social Psychology – The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(3), 245-264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.145.3.245-264.
8. Closson, L. M., & Boutilier, R. R. (2017). Perfectionism, academic engagement, and procrastination among undergraduates: The moderating role of honors student status. Learning and Individual Differences – Learning and Individual Differences, 57, 157-162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.04.001.
9. Gayary, M., & Kalita, S. (2025). Relationship between academic procrastination and academic achievement of postgraduate students. Journal of Education and Health Promotion – Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 14, Article 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_435_24.
10. Gustavson, D. E., Miyake, A., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2014). Genetic relations among procrastination, impulsivity, and goal-management ability: Implications for the evolutionary origin of procrastination. Psychological Science – Psychological Science, 25(6), 1178-1188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614526260.
11. Hidalgo-Fuentes, S., Martínez-Álvarez, I., Llamas-Salguero, F., Pineda-Zelaya, I. S., Merino-Soto, C., & Chans, G. M. (2024). The role of Big Five traits and self-esteem on academic procrastination in Honduran and Spanish university students: A cross-cultural study. Heliyon – Heliyon, 10(16), Article e36172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36172.
12. Hu, Y., Tang, Y., Li, W., Zheng, D., Jin, Y., Fan, Q., Buitelaar, J. K., Zhou, Y., & Chen, Z. (2026). Shared neurogenetic architecture links adolescent neurodevelopmental deviations to adult psychopathological procrastination. Molecular Psychiatry – Molecular Psychiatry. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-03423-0.
13. Jadidi, F., Mohammadkhani, S., & Zahedi Tajrishi, K. (2011). Perfectionism and academic procrastination. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences – Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 534-537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.104.
14. Kandemir, M. (2014). Predictors of academic procrastination: Coping with stress, internet addiction, and academic motivation. World Applied Sciences Journal – World Applied Sciences Journal, 32(5), 930-938. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.32.05.60.
15. Kooren, N. S., Van Nooijen, C., & Paas, F. (2024). The influence of active and passive procrastination on academic performance: A meta-analysis. Education Sciences – Education Sciences, 14(3), Article 323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14030323.
16. Korkmaz, O., Ilhan, T., & Bardakci, S. (2018). An investigation of self-efficacy, locus of control, and academic procrastination as predictors of academic achievement in students diagnosed as gifted and non-gifted. European Journal of Education Studies – European Journal of Education Studies, 5(12). DOI: 10.46827/ejes.v0i0.1678.
17. Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology – International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993.
18. Meng, X., Pan, Y., & Li, C. (2024). Portraits of procrastinators: A meta-analysis of personality and procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences – Personality and Individual Differences, 218, Article 112490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112490.
19. Mofield, E., & Parker Peters, M. (2019). Understanding underachievement: Mindset, perfectionism, and achievement attitudes among gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted – Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 42(2), 107-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353219836737.
20. Nadarajan, S., Hengudomsub, P., & Wacharasin, C. (2023). The role of academic procrastination on internet addiction among Thai university students: A cross-sectional study. Belitung Nursing Journal – Belitung Nursing Journal, 9(4), 384-390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33546/bnj.2755.
21. Online Etymology Dictionary. (2024). Retrieved from: https://www.etymonline.com/.
22. Oxford English Dictionary. (2023). Retrieved from: https://www.oed.com/.
23. Rebetez, M. M. L., Barsics, C., Rochat, L., D’Argembeau, A., & Van der Linden, M. (2016). Procrastination, consideration of future consequences, and episodic future thinking. Consciousness and Cognition – Consciousness and Cognition, 42, 286-292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.003.
24. Rice, K. G., Richardson, C. M. E., & Clark, D. (2012). Perfectionism, procrastination, and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology – Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(2), 288-302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026643.
25. Rist, F., Engberding, M., Hoecker, A., Wolf-Lettmann, J., & Fischbach, E.-M. (2023). Diagnostic criteria to differentiate pathological procrastinators from common delayers: A re-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology – Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1147401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1147401.
26. Roberts, B. W., Chernyshenko, O. S., Stark, S., & Goldberg, L. R. (2005). The structure of conscientiousness: An empirical investigation based on seven major personality questionnaires. Personnel Psychology – Personnel Psychology, 58, 103-139. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00301.x.
27. Shaw, A., & Choi, J. (2022). Big Five personality traits predicting active procrastination at work: When self- and supervisor-ratings tell different stories. Journal of Research in Personality – Journal of Research in Personality, 99, Article 104261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104261.
28. Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin – Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.
29. Strunk, K. K., & Steele, M. R. (2011). Relative contributions of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-handicapping in predicting student procrastination. Psychological Reports – Psychological Reports, 109(3), 983-989. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2466/07.09.20.PR0.109.6.983-989.
30. Svartdal, F., & Nemtcan, E. (2022). Past negative consequences of unnecessary delay as a marker of procrastination. Frontiers in Psychology – Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 787337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787337.
31. Valente, S., Dominguez-Lara, S., & Lourenço, A. (2024). Planning time management in school activities and relation to procrastination: A study for educational sustainability. Sustainability – Sustainability, 16(16), Article 6883. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166883.
32. Vikram, S. M., Singh, R., & Pandey, A. (2025). Self-handicapping, procrastination and mindfulness among college students. Indian Journal of Applied School Psychology – Indian Journal of Applied School Psychology, 6(1), 267-275.
33. Vural, L., & Gündüz, G. F. (2019). The relationship between academic procrastination behaviors and cognitive awareness levels of prospective teachers. Elementary Education Online – Elementary Education Online, 18(1), 307-330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2019.527226.
34. Wang, J., Wang, P., Yang, X., Zhang, G., Wang, X., Zhao, F., Zhao, M., & Lei, L. (2019). Fear of missing out and procrastination as mediators between sensation seeking and adolescent smartphone addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction – International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17(4), 1049-1062. 14 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00106-0.
35. Zentall, T. R. (2021). Basic behavioral processes involved in procrastination. Frontiers in Psychology – Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 769928. 8 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769928.
